Pesticide Use in Malaysia and its Health Implications
Agrochemicals are widely used in Malaysia especially in the plantations. Mainly dominated by herbicides,
these are most commonly used in the approximately 4 million hectares of plantation crops—palm oil, rubber
and cocoa. In 1993, the agrochemical market in Malaysia was worth RM262million, with herbicides accounting
for 76.3 per cent of the share. In 1997, the figure rose to the level of RM326million, with herbicides still accounting
for three-quarters of the share at 75.1 per cent. The herbicide market itself was estimated at RM200 million in
1993 and at RM245 million in 1997. (Figure 1 and 2)
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1: Trends in the Agrochemical Market in Malaysia
16.0%
Insecticides
3.5%
5.4% Rodenticides
Fungicides
75.1%
Herbicides
1997 Total: RM326 Million
Herbicides
76.3%
Insecticides
14.9%
Fungicides
5.0%
Rodenticides
3.8%
1993 Total: RM262 Million
Source: Malaysian Agricultural Directory & Index, 1999/2000
FIGURE 2: Consumption of Agrochemicals in Malaysia (RM million)* 1993 – 1997
Herbicides
Insecticides
Fungicides
Rodenticides
0
50
100
150
200
250
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
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2 Poisoned and Silenced: A Study of Pesticide Poisoning in the Plantations
The Third National Agricultural Policy (1998-2010) for Malaysia states that the rapid growth of the oil palm
industry in the country will be sustained, with future expansion into Sabah and Sarawak and through reverse
investment in neighbouring countries.Oil palm and rubber are viewed as important exports and significant revenue
earners for the country.
With limited land availability, the plantation area has remained constant over the years. However, large areas of
land under cocoa and rubber crops have been replanted with the more lucrative oil palm, which is expected to
further expand agrochemical usage in the country. The area of oil palms in Malaysia is expected to rise from 2.7
million ha (in 1998) to 4.3 million ha in 2020, with a subsequent rise in the utilisation of agrochemicals such as
herbicides, rodenticides, insecticides and fungicides as indicated in Table 1 (AGROW, 1998).
Year 1998 2000 2005 2010 2020
Oil palm area (000 ha) 2742 2874 3192 3518 4251
Herbicides (million litres)
Glyphosate 7.7 8 8.9 9.9 11.9
Paraquat 4.8 5.0 5.6 6.1 7.4
2,4-D amine 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.5
Spray adjuvants 0.5 5.2 5.7 6.3 7.7
Rodenticides (tonnes)
Warfarin 2.8 2.9 3.3 3.6 4.3
Bromadioline 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Insecticides
Cypermethrin (000 litres) 1974 2069 2298 2533 3061
Carbofuran (000 kg) 1398 1466 1628 1794 2168
Sime RB Pheromone (000
sachets)
129 135 150 165 200
Fungicides (kg)
Thiram 4524 4742 5267 5805 7014
Benomyl 2550 2673 2968 3272 3953
Herbicides (Glyphosate and Paraquat) and rodenticides are the major pesticides used in oil palm plantations.
The state and sector-wide distribution of oil palm area is indicated in Table 2.
In Malaysia, over 3,000 retail outlets are involved in the manufacture, formulation and packaging of pesticides
(Lum et al, 1990). There are presently 1,600 pesticide products registered in the country, comprising about 250
active ingredients (Ong, 1996).
Although not strictly referred to as agrochemicals, household chemicals contain pesticides as active ingredients,
and are a source of exposure to households especially to young children. These are largely insecticides packaged
differently for household needs. The use of aerosols and mats is increasing at a steady rate of 5-6 per cent
annually, much higher than the conventional coil usage, expanding only at 1-2 per cent annually (Figure 3).
Though coils are the cheapest product in the market, consumers object to the stench and sticky residue left
behind by smoke, and hence prefer the more expensive aerosols and mats.
Table 1: Agrochemical usage on Oil Palms in Malaysia (1998-2020) pdfMachine by BroadGun Software
Poisoned and Silenced: A Study of Pesticide Poisoning in the Plantations 3
State Smallholders
licensed
FELDA FELCRA RISDA State
schemes/Govt
Agencies
Private
Estate
Total
Johor 108,450 129,382 19,656 3,901 17,578 308,025 586,992
Kedah 8,095 300 1,016 481 0 31,737 41,629
Kelantan 1,052 39,119 6,168 420 8,948 17,121 72,828
Malacca 3,182 1,191 1,215 763 0 29,237 35,588
N. Sembilan 10,444 24,675 5,986 1,770 0 62,404 105,279
Pahang 11,591 285,632 25,507 9,719 50,220 157,433 540,102
Penang 7,035 0 484 56 0 7,297 14,872
Perak 43,291 23,542 29,526 3,259 6,629 169,701 275,948
Selangor 35,553 8,929 3,872 269 9,880 81,183 139,686
Terengganu 3,011 42,272 19,410 16,425 14,633 47,898 143,649
P. Malaysia 231,704 555,042 112,840 37,063 107,888 912,036 1,956,573
Sabah 26,178 118,057 1,348 0 58,591 511,562 715,736
Sarawak 2,158 8,383 3,547 0 58,036 74,883 147,007
Sabah /
Sarawak
28,336 126,440 4,895 0 116,627 586,445 862,743
MALAYSIA 260,040 681,482 117,735 37,063 224,515 1,408,481 2,819,316
In Malaysia, the aerial application of pesticides is still permitted by the Pesticides Board in collaboration with the
Department of Civil Aviation, though retaining the option only as a last resort. The seeming lack of urgency in
reducing the amount of pesticides used in the plantations is a cause for concern especially with regards to the
safety and well being of women workers, particularly those employed as pesticide sprayers and applicators.
Several local companies in Malaysia are diversifying into agri businesses. The country is also becoming a focal
point for pesticide exports in the region, with active ingredients being sent for formulation into new products and
re-export to neighbouring countries. At the global level, the European and North Americanmarkets are reaching
Table 2: Distribution of Oil Palm Planted Area by State and Sector (hectares), 1997
Source: Malaysian Agricultural Directory & Index, 1999/2000
FIGURE 3: Consumption of Household Products in Malaysia, 1996 – 1997
Source: Malaysian Agricultural Directory & Index, 1999/ 2000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1996 1997
Aerosols
Coils
Mats & Others
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4 Poisoned and Silenced: A Study of Pesticide Poisoning in the Plantations
their limits in pesticide sales, and the industry is aggressively promoting its products to farmers, plantations and
governments in the South.
The agrochemical industry is largely controlled by a handful of transnational corporations that reap enormous
benefits but are subjected to little accountability. Despite having mechanisms such as pesticide legislation and
stringent testing protocols for registration, the onus of proving product safety does not lie with the manufacturer.
It is usually up to the governments to ban specific pesticide products if found hazardous to health.
Currently, over 120 tests have to be carried out prior to issuing a permit to register a pesticide in the U.S. Despite
this, and given the hundreds of new chemicals introduced globally every year, it is no surprise that systematic
health and environmental poisoning are believed to be common. Pesticide companies routinely sell products banned
in their home countries to the developing world, where regulatory and legal enforcement capacities are lacking.
The Global Industry
As stated above, with the European and North Americanmarkets reaching their limits in terms of pesticide sales,
the Pesticides industry is now heavily promoting its products to the South. A point of much concern is the often
aggressive marketing tactics that take place to push sales. Many of their product promotion tactics even go
against the codes of conduct that they have voluntarily accepted. Some of these tactics are based on untrue
information and other tactics that could be considered dangerous.
For example in 1993, Malaysian NGOs and the general public heavily criticised an advertisement taken out by
ICI, which appeared in the local newspapers, claiming that Paraquat is “environmentally friendly”. (Rengam,
1994). In 1993, ICI spun-off its “new science” industries (pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, seeds and specialty
chemicals) into a separate company called Zeneca. Zeneca then merged with the Swedish pharmaceutical
company to form AstraZeneca. In 1999, AstraZenecamerged its agrochemical divisions with Norvatis to form a
company presently called Syngenta, which continues to market Paraquat in Malaysia.
In another case, in an interview with a reporter from the Bangkok Post, dated June 9th 1999, the manager of
Monsanto Thailand boasted that Roundup (trade name for glyphosate) was safer than coffee or table salt. He also
maintained, “In another study on rabbits, Roundup has been found to cause less irritation than baby shampoo”.
(Chinvarakorn, 1999). Such statements clearly violate the Food and AgricultureOrganisation’s (FAO) International
Code on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, which the company is known to voluntarily honour.
Since the early trends in the 1970s, the pesticides industry has gone through a period of consolidation. After a
flurry of mergers and acquisitions in the last few years, corporate domination of the food system has reached a
peak. As reported by AGROW Crop protection News in 1999, the top five agrochemical companies, Syngenta
(merger of Novartis and Astra-Zeneca, as mentioned above), Aventis (Rhone-Poulanc and AgrEvo), Monsanto
(Pharmacia1 ), BASF and Du Pont, building up strategic monopolies incorporating dominant positions in the
seed, agrochemicals, pharmaceuticals and related markets. As reported by the Canada-based ETC Group
(ActionGroup onErosion, TechnologyandConcentration), in 2000 the top two companies-Syngenta and Pharmaciacontrol
34 per cent of the global agrochemicalmarket, valued at US$29,880 million.
Pesticides and Human Health
Pesticide Exposure and Toxicity in Humans
Pesticides are classified into four categories depending on their toxicity (by U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency EPA andWorld Health OrganisationWHO). Themost dangerous pesticides are in EPA Category 1, and
WHO Category 1A and 1B.
There are four ways pesticides can enter the human body – by breathing, by swallowing, through skin contact and
through the eyes in cases of splashes or spills. Themost common route of pesticide absorption is through the skin.
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Poisoned and Silenced: A Study of Pesticide Poisoning in the Plantations 5
Some parts of the skin, such as the genital area, the face and neck followed by the back of the hands, armpits and
forearm absorb pesticides more easily than others. If the skin is damp or wet, or if there is a cut or rash, pesticides
will go through the skin faster and in larger amounts. Children absorbmore pesticides than adults at the same level
of exposure, due to a large skin surface for their size, and because of rapid breathing rate.
Pesticides affect human health in three major ways:
- Immediate / acute effects: reactions to pesticides that occur due to direct contact with pesticides
and manifest within a very short time. The most common effects are irritation of the eyes, nose
and throat such as tearing, stinging, burning and coughs, skin irritation and rashes. Almost 76 per
cent of all acute poisonings in Asian countries are caused by organophosphates (Jeyaratnam et
al, 1987).
- Delayed / Chronic effects: reactions that occur due to low levels of exposure over a long period of
time, which may take months or years to manifest as cancers, neurological damage or
reproductive system disorders.
- Effects on existing conditions: aggravation of existing medical condition conditions such as
asthma and allergies, heart and immune system disorders.
Of late, there has been growing concern over the use of chemicals that can disrupt the endocrine system, which
controls key developmental, reproductive, behavioral and immunological functions.Of all the endocrine disrupting
effects of pesticides, the most serious ones arise from changes that occur during foetal development in the
womb, as these changes are irreversible. For example, changes in the developing brain can alter neural pathways
leading to alterations in behavior and endocrine function. Changes to the thymus and bonemarrow cells can lead
to immune suppression. Changes to the developing testes or ovaries can affect sperm or egg quality and quantity
(PAN AP, 1999).
Chemical pesticides known to disrupt the endocrine system among others include DDT and its degradation
products such as DDD and DDE, Alachlor, Aldicarb, Aldrin, Atrazine, Carbaryl, Carbofuran, Dimethoate, Dinoseb,
Endosulfan (thiodan), Endrin, Fenitrothion, Fipronil, Lindane, Malathion,Maneb,Methoxychlor, Parathion, 2,4,5-
T, 2,4-D, Toxaphene, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate), dicofol, hexachlorobenzene and synthetic pyrethroids,Chlorpyrifos
and Deltamethrin.
There is also a significant association of congenital limb defects in children whose mothers have been exposed
to pesticides in close proximity (Kricker et al, 1986).
Factors Affecting Toxicity in Humans (WHO/UNEP 1990)
The severity of any adverse effect from exposure to pesticides depends on the dose, the route of exposure, how
easily the pesticide is absorbed, the types of effects of the pesticide and its metabolites, and its accumulation
and persistence in the body.
Table 3: Top 10 Agrochemical Companies
Source: ETC Group, based on data provided by Allan Woodburn Associates cited in Agrow. July/August, 2001
Company Agchem Sales
in US$ millions
% share of
world market
1. Syngenta (Novartis + AstraZeneca) $6,100 20%
2. Pharmacia (Monsanto) $4,100 14%
3. Aventis (AgrEvo +Rhone Poulenc) $3,400 11%
4. BASF (+ Cyanamid) $3,400 11%
5. DuPont $2,500 8%
6. Bayer $2,100 7%
7. Dow AgroSciences $2,100 7%
8. Makhteshim-Agan $675 2%
9. Sumitomo $625 2%
10. FMC $575 2% pdfMachine by BroadGun Software
6 Poisoned and Silenced: A Study of Pesticide Poisoning in the Plantations
Further, the toxic manifestations depend on the health status of the individual. Malnutrition and dehydration are
likely to increase sensitivity to pesticides. Sores and skin abrasions may facilitate uptake of pesticides through
the skin, which is of particular importance when adequate protective clothing is not available or not worn.
Nutritional deficiencies such as Protein EnergyMalnutrition may aggravate pesticide toxicity.Water deprivation
maymake peoplemore susceptible to the effects of anticholinesterase pesticides. Hence field workers suffering
from dehydration are more susceptible to poisoning by organophosphorous and carbamate pesticides. A rise in
ambient temperature often makes the toxic effects of pesticides worse.
In the body, the pesticide may be metabolised or itmay be stored in fat, or excreted unchanged. In times of poor
nutrition, the body’s fat deposits are mobilised, releasing the stored pesticides into the bloodstream, with the
possibility of toxic effects if the concentration reaches high levels.
When two or more pesticides are used simultaneously, theymay interact and become either more toxic (synergism
or potentiation, as with lindane and heptachlor) or less toxic (antagonism). Effects that result from pesticide
interactions although hard to identify and quantify, are probably of more importance than generally recognised.
Occupational Exposure to Pesticides
WHO estimates the total cases of pesticide poisoning worldwide at between 2 and 5 million workers each year
of which 40,000 are fatal. Of these, 70 per cent of the cases are in the developing world. Copplestone (1985)
states that about 60-70 per cent of all cases of unintentional acute pesticide poisoning cases are due to occupational
exposure. Workers in agriculture are said to face at least twice the risk of dying on the job than other
sectors. Those in developing countries such as Malaysia are especially at high risk due to inadequate education,
training and safety systems.
Figure 4: Manifestations of Toxicant Absorption (Morgan 1980)
0 Toxicant absorption
Detectable
absorption
Incipient toxicity
Poisoning dose
Lethal dose
‘Exposure’
a if s a io s
Toxicant and/ or metabolites detectable in blood or urine
Enzyme changes in plasma or cells
Symptoms and signs of poisoning
Autopsy findings
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Poisoned and Silenced: A Study of Pesticide Poisoning in the Plantations 7
The following list shows some of the occupations at potential risk from exposure to pesticides:
- pesticidemanufacturers (production workers)
- formulators
- vendors
- transporters
- mixers
- loaders
- operators of application equipment (farmers / sprayers / workers)
- growers and pickers
- rescue and clean up parties
Long-term exposure is likely to occur in the occupational groups listed above. Very few reports of such effects are
available, and further studies are needed to document occupational exposure to pesticides.
Data collected from the Social Security Organisation, Malaysia, 1991 suggests that the accident rate per 1,000
workers is as high as 25 per cent in the country. In 1991, as many as 35,224 workers in the agricultural sector
were affected by accidents, an increase of 8 per cent over a period of three years (ILO, 2000).
A report by the Malaysian Factories and Machinery Department, the agency that enforces the Occupational
Safety and Health Act, revealed that the accident rate for improper handling of pesticides is four times higher than
that of other industries, and is as high as 93 per 1000 workers as compared with the national average of 23 per
1000 workers (Rengam, 1991).
Women are at High Risk
Due to the multiple roles they play in society, women workers have special needs concerning nutrition, lifestyle
and reproductive health.Women have a dual reproductive and economic role as unpaid workers at home, and as
paid workers in the fields. On an average a woman works 1-3 hours per day longer than a man in the same
society.
The physiological differences in women’s bodies (more fatty tissue, thinner skin and lower kidney functions)
make them more vulnerable to pesticide exposure than men. During pregnancy, pesticides can cross the placenta
and affect the developing foetus (PAN AP, 1999). It is therefore crucial that female sprayers in plantations
are monitored constantly for exposure to pesticides.
An early study in Malaysia revealed that 88 of the 100 cases of confirmed organophosphate poisonings were
women of Indian origin. The study attributed this to the easy availability of pesticides on rubber plantations, which
employmany Indian women (Delilkan et al, 1984).
In general, the health hazards of women workers have been traditionally under-estimated because occupational
safety and health standards, and exposure limits to hazardous substances are based on male populations and
laboratory tests.
Table 4: Factors Affecting Skin Absorption of Pesticides
Skin characteristics - sores and abrasions
- wetness of skin
- location on the body (absorption occurs readily
through the eyes and lips)
- vascularization
Environmental factors - temperature
- humidity
Pesticide
characteristics
- acidity (pH)
- vehicle
- physical state (solid, liquid or gas)
- concentration of active ingredient
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8 Poisoned and Silenced: A Study of Pesticide Poisoning in the Plantations
Signs and Symptoms of Organophospate Poisoning
Acute organophosphate poisoning accounts for 53.6 per cent of total poisonings in Malaysia (He, 1999). Symptoms
of acute organophosphate poisoning develop during or after exposure withinminutes to hours, depending on
the method of contact. Exposure by inhalation results in the fastest appearance of toxic symptoms, followed by
the gastrointestinal route and finally the dermal route.
Some of themost commonly reported early symptoms include headache, nausea, dizziness and hyper secretion,
the latter of which is manifested by sweating, salivation, lacrimation and rhinorrhea.Muscle twitching, weakness,
tremor, incoordination, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhoea signal a worsening of the poisoned state.
Meiosis is a helpful diagnostic sign and the patient may report blurred or dark vision. Anxiety and restlessness
are prominent, as are a few reports of choreaform movements. Psychiatric symptoms include depression,memory
loss, and confusion. Toxic psychosis manifested as confusion or bizarre behaviour has been misdiagnosed as
alcohol intoxication. Children often present with slightly different clinical picture than adults. Seizures andmental
changes such as lethargy and coma are common (U.S. EPA, 1999).
A study by Yusof et al (1995) revealed that in comparison to a non-exposed control population, 12.4 per cent of
the agricultural workers in Ranau, Sabah suffered from nail abnormalities, and almost 50 per cent suffered from
reproductive disorders andmiscarriages attributable to pesticide exposure.
Confirmation of Poisoning
It is commonly advised that if pesticide poisoning is probable or suspected, it should be treated immediately,
without waiting for laboratory confirmation.
For clinical confirmation, blood samples should be drawn tomeasure the plasma cholinesterase or red blood cell
AchE (Acetyl cholinesterase enzyme) levels. A depression of plasma pseudo-cholinesterase and /or RBC acetyl
cholinesterase levels is a good indicator of excessive organophosphate absorption. A significant number of
organophosphates must be absorbed to depress blood cholinesterase activity, but enzyme activities especially
Table 5: Common symptoms of Acute Organophosphate Poisoning
(PAN/ CTA 1995)
Mild to moderately severe
poisoning
Severe poisoning (in addition
to those seen in mild
poisoning)
Very severe poisoning (in
addition to those seen in mild
and severe poisoning)
- nausea, vomiting
- headache
- increased salivation
- extreme weakness,
fatigue
- dizziness
- flu like symptoms
- increased
perspiration
- blurred vision
- inarticulate speech
- difficulties in walking
- abdominal cramps
and diarrhoea
- excessive perspiration
with salivation
- twitching of the
eyelids, tongue and
gradually of other
skeletal muscles
- pin sized pupils, but
pupils may also be
dilated
- uncontrollable urine
excretion and bowel
movements
- generalized
convulsions
(resembling epileptic
seizures)
- unconsciousness
- acute breathing
problems
- drop in blood pressure
- death due to
respiratory failure,
heart failure, and
pulmonary oedema
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Poisoned and Silenced: A Study of Pesticide Poisoning in the Plantations 9
plasma pseudo cholinesterase may be lowered by dosages considerably lesser than are required to cause
symptomatic poisoning. Depression of the plasma levels usually persists for several days to a few weeks. The
approximate lower limits of normal plasma and RBC cholinesterasemeasured by the BMC Reagent Set (Ellman
Boehringer method) are 1875 and 3000mU/mL/min.
In certain conditions, the activities of plasma and RBC cholinesterase are depressed in the absence of chemical
inhibition. About 3 per cent of individuals have genetically determined low level of plasma pseudocholinesterase.
Patients with hepatitis, cirrhosis,malnutrition, chronic alcoholism and dermatomyositis exhibit low levels. A number
of toxicants including nicotine, state of early pregnancy, birth control pills may also cause depression of levels.
It is generally accepted that everyone has his or her own personal level of cholinesterase. This personal level
called a ‘baseline’ can be lower or higher in some people than others. To confirm organophosphate poisoning, a
reduction from this baseline level needs to be established. Unfortunately, in most cases, baseline levels (levels
before exposure) are not available and hence two or more repeat testing are suggested to confirm poisoning
(Moses, 1996).
Pesticide Poisoning Cases in Malaysia
Recording of pesticide poisoning cases in Malaysia has been limited to in-patient data, laboratory reports from
government hospitals and records from the Chemistry Department of the Ministry of Science, Technology and
Environment. From 1970 to 1982 there were 100 cases of organophosphate poisoning admitted to the Intensive
Care Unit, University Hospital in Kuala Lumpur (Delilkan et al, 1984). Data from the Ministry suggest that most
cases of poisonings from 1979 to 1986 were related to pesticides, mainly the herbicide Paraquat, and of the
causes, 49.1 per cent were intentional and 37.8 per cent accidental. Hospital records from 1994 revealed that 740
poisonings related to pesticides occurred at work (Rajendra, 1996). However, data on accidental pesticide poisoning
is often confused by the incidence of pesticide poisonings related to suicides.
Geographical areas with a concentration of plantations are likely to record high levels ofmortality due to pesticide
poisoning. Data clearly suggests that farm and plantation workers constitute 45 per cent of the reported pesticide
deaths (Sinnaia, 1989). Another survey revealed that 13.3 per cent of all agricultural workers in Malaysia were
poisoned, with an average of 6.7 per cent of agricultural workers poisoned per year (Jeyaretnam et al, 1987).
Studies have also shown that 12.2 per cent of a total of 264 poisoning cases treated in a teaching hospital were
attributable to pesticides (Awang et al, 1991).
A more recent study (Zain, 1998) reports that in the year 1995, a total of 972 cases of pesticide poisonings were
admitted to Malaysian hospitals. Of these, 133 were caused by accidents, 247 by other causes, 520 were
attributed as suicides, while causes were unknown for 72 cases. The same study reports that Johor and Perak
had the highest number of deaths due to pesticide poisoning (33 cases) with Kedah reporting only one case;
Perak reported the highest number of hospitalisations (137) and Kedah (29); Negeri Sembilan reported the
highest number of suicide attempts using pesticides (125), Perak (71) and Kedah (4).
A study by the Consumer Association of Penang (CAP, 1996) revealed that asmany as 90 per cent of the farmers
surveyed did not observe safetymeasures while handling pesticides. Used pesticide containers were disposed
off in water areas, and none of the farms displayed the notice “Danger: Pesticide Sprayed Area, No Entry to
Unauthorized Persons”, as stipulated by regulations.
A 1998 survey of pesticide use and associated incidences of poisoning in Peninsular Malaysia, reported that
estate workers formed the majority of all pesticide poisonings reported. The study also revealed that
organophopshorous insecticides and rodenticides were used widely in oil palm plantations, though the estate
workers did not understand or were unaware of the colour coding of chemicals, and the potential hazards from
pesticides (Ramasamy et al, 1988).
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10 Poisoned and Silenced: A Study of Pesticide Poisoning in the Plantations
Poisoning cases most commonly occur during spraying, mixing, and diluting the pesticides. A study conducted
inMalaysia revealed the following information on the activities associated with high incidence of pesticide poisoning
(Jeyaretnam, 1982):
Some of the specific factors contributing to acute pesticide poisoning are (Jeyaretnam, 1985):
- Lack of protective clothing suitable for tropical climates,
- Poor knowledge and understanding of safe practices in pesticide use,
- Use of pesticides (by farmers) in concentrations in excess of requirements,
- Poor maintenance facilities for spray equipment, giving rise to hazardous contamination, and
- Use of pesticide mixtures.
Studies on the occupational exposure of sprayers have been limited in Malaysia. Swan (1969) carried out two
fields trials on Malaysian rubber plantations to study the exposure of operators applying Paraquat with hand
operated knapsack sprayers. Howard et al (1981) studied the health of Malaysian plantation workers using
Paraquat sprayers. Chester andWoollen (1981) reported on occupational exposure to Paraquat. Lee and Chung
(1985) carried out an extensive study on the potential contamination of various parts of a spray operator’s body.
Tan et al (1988) studied the potential dermal exposure of spray operators.
A study byWhitaker (1989) covering 400 Malaysian rubber and oil palm small holders in Johor, Perak, Kelantan
and Pahang reports a satisfactory awareness regarding the hazards from pesticides, safety and hygiene. The
study however adds that standards in storage of pesticide containers and disposal of empty containers need to
be improved, and emphasises continued education and training programmes regarding the use of pesticides.
Very few studies have been undertaken to study the problem of acute pesticide poisoning among agricultural
workers, and more so women workers. The inadequacy among health professionals to recognise and treat
pesticide poisoning victims is also generally recognised.
Table 6: Poisoning Incidents in Malaysia by type of Activity
Incidents Percent poisoned
Spraying 181 5.7
Mixing or diluting 107 3.4
Other (including equipment repair) 2 0.2
1 When Pharmacia acquired Monsanto in November 1999 it quickly spun off the ag biotech company as a detached
agribusiness unit. However, Pharmacia retains 86% control of the new, independent entity.
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